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3. G. L. Engel, as paraphrased in G. F. Solomon et al., “Immunity, Emotions, and Stress,” A

4. G. L. Engel, “Studies of Ulcerative Colitis III:The Nature of the Psychological Process,” American Journal of Medicine 19 (1955), 31, cited in A. Watkins, ed., Mind-Body Medicine:A Clinician’s Guide to Psychoneuroimmunology (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1997), 140.

5. D. A. Drossman, “Presidential Address: Gastrointestinal Illness and the Biopsychosocial Model,” Psychosomatic Medicine 60 (1998): 258–67.

6. S. R. Targan, “Biology of Inflammation in Crohn’s Disease: Mechanisms of Action of Anti-TNF-Alpha Therapy,” Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology: Update on Liver and Inflammatory Bowel Disease, vol. 14, supplement C (September 2000).